Glimpse of European history in Tweet threads – Part 2
Posted by RB Kollannur on June 12, 2021
This is a continuation of my earlier compilation of tweet threads available here. Threads after #200 are available here.
101 – Hugh Ó Néill, Earl of Tyrone (1585-1608), Baron Dungannon (1562-1585) – The completion of English conquest of Ireland. Ó Néill and his colleagues in the Irish rebellion against the English left Ireland in 1607 leaving behind a political vacuum. This was negated by English settlers who set up plantations in their strongholds i.e Ulster. This ended up as a Protestant enclave in a predominantly Catholic Ireland. The area that was settled in early 17th century largely remains part of UK even now as Northern Ireland, while the remaining parts got its independence in the 1920s.
102 – Ivan Vasilievich – Tsar of Russia (1547-1584), Grand Prince of Moscow (1533-1547) – From 862 to 1547, Rus’ were ruled by the Rurikid dynasty, but it was only with Ivan in 1547, that they became a proper single nation with central rule.
103 – Petr Alekseivich – Tsar of Russia (1682-1725), Emperor of Russia (1721-1725), Duke of Estonia (1721-1725), Duke of Livonia (1721-1725) – Russia became a formidable nation during Petr’s rule connecting the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea and modernising the Russian Navy. Despite the instability after Petr’s death, the Empire he created stayed put and grew under his descendants.
104 – Anne Neville, Queen Consort of England – The War of Roses was a civil war in England between Lancastrians and Yorkists that saw power change in quick succession. Anne Neville, in her 29 years, was married to the Lancastrian crown prince, Edward, Prince of Wales, and the Yorkist prince, Richard of Gloucester, who became King Richard III.
105 – Henry Tudor, King of England (1485-1509), Lord of Ireland (1485-1509), Earl of Richmond (1457-1461) – The closure of War of Roses, when a Welsh aristocrat, with English connections, seized the English throne. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Norman / Angevin dynasty had been relatively stable. But the War of the Roses changed that. Despite their lack of political lineage, the new dynasty was able to maintain control over England and later complete the conquest of Ireland.
106 – Traidenis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1270-1282) – Though Mindaugas was the one who is credited with founding Lithuania as a nation, his tryst with Christianity and its reversal led to a chaotic period. Traidenis gave stability to Lithuania as a nation and provided a base for future rulers to build upon, eventually making it the largest Catholic nation in Europe in 1619 as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
107 – Vladimir Sviatoslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev (980-1015), Prince of Novgorod (969-988), Prince of Polotsk (977-988) – Vladimir’s conversion of Christianity led to the foundation of the Russian Orthodox Church, an Eastern Orthodox Church aligned with the Greek Orthodox Church.
108 – Jan Kazimierz Vasa, King of Poland (1648-1668), Grand Duke of Lithuania (1648-1668) – The fall of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a major power of Europe effectively began during his reign, with the loss of Prussia and most of its Russian provinces.
109 – Jan Sobieski, King of Poland (1674-1696), Grand Duke of Lithuania (1674-1696) – Sobieski’s leadership in overturning the Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1683 was crucial in stopping the Ottoman push into Europe. The Habsburgs retaliated against the Ottomans, initiating the process of removing Ottoman power in Europe with the capture of Hungary by 1699.
110 – Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, King of Rome (535 BC-509 BC) – The fall of the Kingdom of Rome and the foundation of the Republic of Rome in its place. The Republic of Rome was founded with the ideal that no one will have complete power, to prevent the takeover by a monarch. However, they allowed for appointment of certain people with more power to tackle emergencies, but only for the duration of those emergencies. This office, called the dictator, was misused a lot in 1st century BC, eventually leading to the fall of the Republic of Rome.
111 – Marcus Cocceius Nerva, Roman Emperor (96-98), Consul of Rome (71), Consul of Rome (90), Consul of Rome (97), Consul of Rome (98) – When Domitian was killed without an heir, there was a likelihood that the Roman Empire could breakup into civil war or fall altogether. But the election of Nerva, who had no long term plans on the empire given his child and lack of progeny, prevented that and was able to select a successor of his own choosing; Someone who succeeded Nerva on his death, thereby ensuring the continuity and the stability of the Empire.
112 – Konstantin Roger Friedrich von Staufen, King of Sicily (1198-1250), King of Jerusalem (1225-1228), King of Germany (1212-1250), King of Italy (1212-1250), Holy Roman Emperor (1220-1250), Duke of Swabia (1212-1250) – The Holy Roman Empire (and Germany) was unstable after 1245, with multiple Kings being elected in competition of the Friedrich and his son Konrad after Friedrich’s death in 1250. When Konrad died in 1254, his young son Konrad was left to rule Sicily while more Kings were elected by competing factions in Germany. The period of instability continued for decades with competing factions pushing for their candidates. It is during this time that the Habsburgs became first prominent in Germany and Bohemian Kings managed to get a bigger say in the imperial title. The period also saw led to the weakening of the imperial hold in Italy, especially with the Wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines.
113 – Richard of Cornwall, Earl of Cornwall (1225-1272), King of Germany (1256-1272) – Though his rule in Germany was nominal, he confirmed Ottokar’s rule over Austria and other Babenberg provinces. This made Ottokar, already King of Bohemia, the most powerful ruler within the Holy Roman Empire and led to other German nobles rallying around an unlikely candidate, Rudolf von Habsburg. After defeating Ottokar in 1278, Rudolf acquired the Babenberg provinces which became the base for the Habsburg dynasty that dominated Austria and later Germany till 1918.
114 – Friedrich von Brandenburg, King in Prussia (1701-1713), Duke of Prussia (1688-1701), Elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), Prince of Neuchâtel (1707-1713) – The Holy Roman Empire had been, for centuries, divided into many provinces like duchies, counties and marches. Apart from Bohemia, there were no other Kingdoms in the Empire. Though Prussia was not within the Empire, the semi-independent nature of the provinces of the Holy Roman Empire meant Brandenburg-Prussia continued on as a Kingdom. Younger than the other stem duchies of the Empire like Bavaria, the royals status would have helped the Hohenzollern dynasty, Brandenburg and Berlin reach an imperial status that other provinces could not.
115 – Victor Amedee François de Savoie, Duke of Savoy (1675-1730), King of Sicily (1713-1720), King of Sardinia (1720-1730) – Since the invasion of the Lombards in 6th century, Italy had been ruled in parts by many rulers. It was only in 1861, that it was finally reunited as a single nation, in a move led by the King of Sardinia, Vittorio Emanuele. Though there were other provinces in Italy before the reunification like the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Parma, the only other Kingdoms at the time were Lombardy Venetia and the Two Sicilies. But while the House of Savoy that ruled Sardinia had a longer association with Italy going back centuries. the others did not. Once the revolutionary movements reached Italy, it got centred around local rulers than foreign ones.
116 – Cináed mac Ailpín, King of Dál Riata (841-858), King of the Picts (843-858), King of Alba (843-858) – Cináed founded the Kingdom of Alba, which became the Kingdom of Scotland (Named after the Latin name of Cináed’s tribe)
117 – Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians (911-918) – Her role as ruler of Mercia and looking after Æthelstan, who later became the first King of the English, in his formative years was crucial in the conquest of Danish Britain and creation of England as a single nation.
118 – Johann de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland (1653-1672), Pensionary of Dordrecht (1650-1653) – He was the effective ruler of the Dutch Republic at its zenith as a commercial colonial empire. Though there was considerable investment in maritime trade and defence, there was no corresponding investment in fortifying the Dutch Republic, which fell away once France invaded. After the Franco-Dutch War which started in 1672, the Dutch never reached their former position of might and lost many of its colonies to the English.
119 – Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653-1658), MP of Huntingdon (1628-1629), MP of Cambridge (1640-1653) – The establishment of the Commonwealth removing a monarchy was a rare occurrence for Europe. The earlier occasion was the Dutch gaining independence from the Habsburgs although the Dutch identity was formed during the independence movement. In a way, the Commonwealth foreshadowed the French Revolution and the later populist revolutions of 19th century Europe.
120 – Sigmund de Luxembourg, King of Hungary (1387-1437), King of Croatia (1387-1437), King of Germany (1411-1437), King of Bohemia (1419-1437), Holy Roman Emperor (1433-1437), Margrave of Brandenburg (1378-1388), 1411-1415) – The beginning of a large scale Reformation movement in Christianity, although with the defeat at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, the Hussite cause was overtaken by the Catholics. The execution of Hus may have had an impact on the Lutheran movement a century later, when Luther was similarly called, but avoided the same fate. Sigmund also brought to an end the Papal Schism which divided the Church between a Pope in Rome and in Avignon, France.
121 – Johann Friedrich von Sachsen, Elector of Saxony (1532-1547), Duke of Saxony (1547-1554) – The beginning of the Protestant movement, which got its name from the Protestation at Speyer led by Johann Friedrich’s father. The war by Schmalkaldic League led by Johann Friedrich against the Holy Roman Empire was the first of its kind in the Empire. It was the role of the Saxon princes that led to the growth of the Protestantism in Germany.
122 – Roger Bernard de Foix, Count of Foix (1223-1241) – Initial steps to the formation of Andorra as an independent nation. Since the claim of Roger Bernard de Foix was contested by Bishop of Urgel, Andorra became a diarchy. Due to this, it could not be absorbed into France, when Henri de Bourbon, Count of Foix, became King of France, unlike rest of his domains.
123 – Siegfried, Count of Luxembourg (963-998) – Origins of Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.
124 – Carl Johan, King of Sweden (1818-1844), King of Norway (1818-1844), Prince of Pontecorvo (1806-1810), French Minister of War (1799) – Origins of the current royal family of Sweden and the separation of Norway from Denmark-Norway, while retaining other possessions of Norway – Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Iceland became free from Denmark in the 20th century.
125 – Haakon VII, King of Norway (1905-1957) – When Prince Carl was invited to become King of Norway in 1905, he insisted on a plebiscite to ensure Norway wanted him as their King. For more than half a century he ruled Norway as their King, upholding the democratic value and the Constitutional principles that brought him to the throne. His grandson, Harald, is the current Norwegian King.
126 – Marcus Vispanius Agrippa, Consul of Rome (37 BC, 28 BC, 27 BC) – Played a crucial role in the formation of Roman Empire from Roman Republic, essentially leading the army of Gaius Octavius and carried out vital engineering projects in the city.
127 – Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Roman Emperor (270-275), Consul of Rome (271, 274, 275) – The Roman Empire was on verge of collapse after its defeat by Persia and the formation of breakaway Empires. Aurelianus stopped the fall and restored the Empire. Though the Empire did get divided later, these divisions were more formal in nature than rebellious. The Western half continued till 476, while the Eastern half continued till 1453, neither would have happened had it been for the restoration by Aurelianus.
128 – Stanisław Leszczyński, King of Poland (1704-1709, 1733-1736), Grand Duke of Lithuania (1704-1709, 1733-1736), Duke of Lorraine (1737-1766), Duke of Bar (1737-1766) – Lorraine was one of the oldest regions in Europe, formed as part of the fall of the Carolingian Empire. As part of larger Kingdom of Lotharingia it was an independent Kingdom, but routinely coveted by both France and Holy Roman Empire. Upper Lorraine was one of the stem duchies of the Holy Roman Empire, but French princes briefly ruled over it and cadet branches of ruling house of Lorraine played an important role in France. Stanisław Leszczyński was the last ruler of Lorraine, after which it became part of France. It would again change hands between France and Germany.
129 – Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1392-1430), Duke of Trakai (1392-1413), Grand Duke of Ruthenia (1398-1430) – When Lithuania reached its greatest extend, before its assimilation into its union with Poland. It was also the beginning of the collapse of the State of the Teutonic Knights in the Baltics, which would later be dominated by Poland, Sweden, Russia and Prussia. Vytautas is a national hero for Lithuanians and is strongly associated with the nationalistic identity of Lithuania after the collapse of its union with Poland and later domination by Russia / Soviet Union.
130 – Moritz von Sachsen, Elector of Saxony (1547-1553), Duke of Saxony (1541-1547), Margrave of Meissen (1541-1553) – While his second cousin led the Protestant military movement in its early years, Moritz resisted it. For this he gained the Electorate of Saxony and his successors would become Kings of Saxony in 19th century. But it was his switch towards the Protestant war effort after their defeat in 1547 that changed the legality of Lutheranism in Holy Roman Empire. His leadership ensured Lutherans had worshipping rights in Germany after the Peace of Passau of 1553 and Peace of Augsburg of 1555.
131 – Augustus, King of Poland (1697-1706, 1709-1733), Grand Duke of Lithuania (1697-1706, 1709-1733), Elector of Saxony (1694-1733) – The collapse of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which was once the most populous nation in Europe. The past century had seen it lose territory, but with the ascendance of Augustus it was over run and dominated by its neighbours, especially Russia.
132 – Arnulf, King of East Francia (887-899), King of Lotharingia (887-894), Holy Roman Emperor (896-899), King of Italy (894-899) – The Carolingian Frankish Empire was divided in 843 into three parts – West, Middle (Which also included Northern Italy) and East. But Middle Francia quickly fell apart after it was again divided and the Carolingian line of Middle Francia died out. Given his illegitimate birth, Arnulf was unlikely to have become King. But with no legitimate Carolingian in the East Frankish line, the danger of a collapse of East Francia remained until Arnulf took over the reins of East Francia in 887. He also expanded his influence over Italy, Lotharingia (Formerly part of Middle Francia) and West Francia, which was also not ruled by Carolingians at the time. East Francia continued on as a Kingdom under Arnulf’s son, Ludwig, and would form the basis for present day Germany. Arnulf would also play a role in returning Carolingian rule to West Francia, which becomes France later.
133 – Otto, King of East Francia (936-973), Duke of Saxony (936-973), King of Italy (961-973), Holy Roman Emperor (962-973) – Otto re-founded the Holy Roman Empire in 962 out of East Francia and retained a strong presence in northern Italy that would continue for three centuries. He put a stop to the Magyar incursions and stabilized the borders of the German nation.
134 – Henrique de Portugal, Duke of Viseu (1415-1460), Grand Master of the Order of Christ (1420-1460) – Europeans had not ventured ventured deep south into the Atlantic, partly because of superstitions. Henrique funded voyages into the Atlantic and beyond the Cape Bojador especially once he got exclusive trading rights to the region from his King. These voyages were the first in the European global exploration and was the key event that led to the colonialization of many parts of Africa, Asia and America by Europe.
135 – Pedro Álvares Cabral – Portuguese explorer credited with discovery of Brazil, since he was the first to make deeper inroads into the continent and send word back to Portugal for setting up colonies in Brazil. He also played an important role in developing alliances in present day Kerala especially in Kochi, when met with opposition from Kozhikode. The Portuguese (and later the Dutch and the British) retained a consistent presence in Kochi after this.
136 – Wilhelm Alexander von Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1905-1912) – Luxembourg became an independent state after the Congress of Vienna, but in personal union with the Kingdom of Netherlands, which had a significant bearing on its independence. However, with Salic Law in place, Luxembourg had to forge a new path away from Netherlands, under Wilhelm and his father Adolf. It was during Grand Duke Wilhelm’s reign, that inheritance in female line was allowed and his descendants are the current rulers of Luxembourg.
137 – Charles Latour Rogier, Prime Minister of Belgium (1847-1852) (1857-1868) – Rogier played a crucial role in the Belgian independence movement and rewrote the Belgian National Anthem.
138 – Gjergj / Iskander Kastrioti – Played an important role in the formation of Albania.
139 – Marinus – The formation of San Marino.
140 – Hērakleios, Byzantine Emperor (610-629) – Hērakleios shifted the Eastern Empire from Latin to Greek, which remained its main language till the fall of the Empire in 1453 with Latin fading in use. With Latin remaining prominent in the fallen western half of the Empire, this marked a further split between the two halves of the Roman Empire. He also had to deal with different factions of Christianity in his Empire, but his attempt to unite the factions failed and helped in the conquest of Levant and Egypt by the Arabs.
141 – Flavius Iulius Crispus, Caesar (317-326), Consul of Rome (318,321,324) – Though no actual reason has been known for his execution, the death of Crispus meant when Constantine died in 337, his sons Constantine (Aged 21), Constantius (Aged 19) and Constans (Aged 17) succeeded him, with their cousins as their deputies. It didn’t take long for the fighting to start. Though the Empire was reunited under Constantius in 350, by 354 the only other male remaining in the dynasty was his cousin Julian, who succeeded Constantius in 361. After Julian’s death in 363, it didn’t take long for the Empire to get divided into two with Constantinople as the Eastern capital and Mediolanum (and later Ravenna) as the Western capital. Had Crispus lived on, he may have been able to keep his brothers in check, given his age and experience and prevented the division.
142 – John d’Anjou, King of England (1199-1216), Duke of Aquitaine (1204-1216), Duke of Normandy (1199-1204), Count of Maine (1199-1204), Lord of Ireland (1177-1216) – The collapse of the Angevin Empire that held a prominent space in France virtually ended the interconnection of England and France since Norman conquest in 1066. Though Magna Carta was reneged, it still forms an initial form of written Constitution in the world. King John’s death at a critical juncture during the rebellion of the Barons, allied with the French crown, led many of the Barons switch to the royal side. Though the French crown prince invaded England without the support of these Barons, it was easier for the English to defend against it, and prevent a French conquest of England.
143 – William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke (1199-1219) – Marshal’s leadership and the defence of the young English King played a vital role in preventing the French conquest of England in 1217.
144 – Guy de Lusignan, Lord of Cyprus (1192-1194) – The Crusader states were at a crossroad when Guy married Sibylle. Kingdom of Jerusalem had been facing strong opposition from the Zengids and later, Saladin, who usurped the Zengids. But they had managed to hold on. However its future was uncertain because of Baudouin’s illness. Attempts to bring princes from Europe (Like Fulk of Anjou, couple of generations earlier) did not meet with success and the fractured periphery vying for power didn’t help. Guy de Lusignan was a neutral candidate to placate the politics of the Crusader states, but he could not rise to level of his predecessors in defending Jerusalem. His conflict with his sister-in-law’s husband, Corrado di Monferrato, also did not help matters.
145 – Isaakios, Lord of Cyprus (1184-1191) – Cyprus had been under some form of Roman rule since 58 BC, when Isaakios acquired the island. This led to a divergent future for the island since it came under Latin influence for the next four centuries before Ottoman conquest in 1571, over a century after the Byzantine Empire had fallen to the Ottomans.
146 – Basarab, Prince of Wallachia (1324-1352) – Beginning of Wallachia, one of the core parts of Romania, as an independent entity.
147 – Bogdan, Prince of Moldavia (1359-1367) – Beginning of Moldavia as an independent entity. Western Moldavia joined with Wallachia in 1859 to form Romania, to which Transylvania was added on later, while Eastern Moldavia is now the main part of Moldova.
148 – César-Constantin-François de Hoensbroeck, Prince of Liège (1784-1789, 1791-1792), Bishop of Liège (1784-1792) – Liège was an imperial holdout of sorts since it was practically the only province in the Low Countries that did not see Habsburg rule. But its fall eased its absorption into Netherlands and later Belgium after the Congress of Vienna.
149 – Judith, Queen of Wessex, Margravine / Countess of Flanders – The beginning of Flanders region, initially part of West Francia (France) but later Holy Roman Empire (Core part of which became Germany), before it became one of the major regions of Belgium. The relation between England and Flanders was also initiated during this period, with Judith’s son (and later Count of Flanders) marrying the daughter of her stepson Ælfred, King of Wessex.
150 – Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, King of Alba (Scotland) (1058-1093) – The transition of a new dynasty from an old one is never easy. The transition of power from House of Ailpin to the House of Dunkeld in Scotland was one such, made more merrier with the writings of William Shakespeare. Macbeth may have had a strong claim to the Scottish throne and may have also been a good ruler, but books, not the historical ones, may say otherwise. But it was Malcolm, son of Duncan, who won in the end. And without Malcolm winning in the end, the story of Macbeth would have lacked the finish it needed.
151 – Offa, King of Mercia (757-796) – His consolidation of Anglo Saxon Britain under Mercia played an important role in the formation of England, while the dyke he either constructed or strengthened remains a de facto border between England and Wales.
152 – Berengar, Margrave of Friuli (874-924), King of Italy (887-923), Holy Roman Emperor (915-924) – After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West in 476, northern Italy had largely managed to stay united under a single ruler. This format continued for most part, even when Ostrogoths, Lombards and Franks came calling. But the period of instability of Berengar’s reign’s early part allowed for stronger regional entities in northern Italy and facilitated in its easy breakup into many provinces, many of which would last till the 19th century.
153 – Charles, Count of Anjou (1246-1285), Count of Maine (1246-1285), Count of Provence (1267-1285), Count of Forcalquier (1267-1285), King of Sicily (1266-1285), King of Albania (1272-1285), Prince of Achaea (1278-1285) – Unlike the northern half of Italy after 476 which managed to stay on as a single state, the southern half had been divided among the Lombards, Byzantium and the Muslims. The Normans had united the southern half along with Sicily but the division during the reign of King Charles sustained for centuries. King Charles preference of French and transfer of capital from Palermo in Sicily to mainland Italy, was among the major reasons for the rebellion and subsequent division of the Kingdom of Sicily.
154 – João de Bragança, King of Portugal (1640-1656), Duke of Bragança (1630-1640), Marquis of Vila Viçosa (1630-1640), Count of Ourém (1630-1640), Count of Neiva (1630-1640), Count of Arrialos (1630-1640), Duke of Barcelos (1604-1630) – After the legitimate line of House of Aviz became extinct, there were many contenders to the Portuguese throne. Among them were the Spanish King Felipe, whose mother was from the Portuguese royal family and Catarina, grandmother of João de Bragança, whose father was from the Portuguese royal family and King Felipe’s cousin. The claim could not be enforced after Felipe acquired Portugal by conquest, but with Felipe’s descendants giving more importance to Spain over Portugal, the independence movement of Portugal got centred around the Bragança claim.
155 – Recaredo, King of the Visigoths (586-601) – When the Umayyads conquered most of the Iberian peninsula, since the Visigothic Kingdom was a Catholic state, the Church supported the reconquest of the peninsula by Christian nations. Asturias was the lone successor state to the Visigothic Kingdom, while the Franks conquered Catalonia and the region around Pyrenees. It was Recaredo who initiated the switch of Visigoths from Arian Christianity to Roman Christianity.
156 – Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor General of the Dutch East Indies (1618-1623, 1627-1629) – Coen was initially successful in getting favourable trade agreements on clove and nutmeg from Moluccas and Banda Islands. His conquest of Jayakarta gave the Dutch a firm footing to build from in the Indonesian archipelago, where it played a strong role for over three centuries.
157 – Salvador Correia de Sá e Benevides, Governor of Rio de Janeiro (1637-1642, 1648, 1659-1660), Governor of Angola (1648-1651) – The recovery of Luanda was crucial for Portugal. Angola and Portugal retains a close relation even now.
158 – Toussaint Louverture, Governor General of Saint-Domingue (1797-1801) – Though Toussaint wasn’t around for the independence of Haiti from France, he played a crucial role in consolidating power with the local community. It was his subordinates who would later lead Haiti to independence, including Jean-Jacques Dessalines who became Emperor of Haiti in 1804.
159 – Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, King of Travancore (1729-1758) – The Dutch had displaced the Portuguese in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, rivalling the British presence. But with their defeat in Kerala, their position weakened and strengthened the position of the British, who were already in alliance with the Portuguese.
160 – Hermann von Salza, Hochmeister of the Teutonic Order (1210-1239) – The state Hermann von Salza founded was the core for Prussia, that would go on to rule Germany in the 19th century.
161 – Albert von Buxthoeven, Bishop of Üxküll (1199-1202), Bishop of Riga (1202-1229) – The conquest and Christianization of the Baltic tribes and the beginning of Latvia as a single nation. Latvia gets its names from the Latgalian tribes of the region. The state Bishop Albert and the Livonian Order created covers Latvia and Estonia (parts of Estonia initially, but in whole after the 1346 purchase of the Danish Duchy of Estonia)
162 – Valdemar Valdemarsen, King of Denmark (1202-1241), Duke of Schleswig (1182-1216), Duke of Estonia (1219-1220, 1240-1241) – The conquest of Estonia completed the Christian conquest of most of the Baltic coastline and provided the initial setting for Estonia as a nation. It was later sold to the Livonian Order later and then conquered by Sweden and later Russia. The conquest of Holstein was the beginning of a centuries long connection of Denmark, Schleswig and Holstein. The Dukes of Schleswig, descended from Valdemar’s second son, Abel, maintained close ties with Holstein, eventually merging the two regions, with the exception of Holstein Pinneburg until 1640 when a part of it went to Rantzau. Schleswig-Holstein was in turn acquired by the King of Denmark and would continue in a familial relation with the Kings of Denmark till Prussia went to war against it in 19th century.
163 – Philippe de Villiers de L’Isle-Adam, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller (1521-1534) – The beginning of self rule in Malta, which was for centuries dominated by other nations around the Mediterranean.
164 – Henry Percy, Baron Percy (1368-1405), Earl of Northumberland (1377-1405), Lord of Mann (1399-1405) – Isle of Man becomes part of England. For many centuries it had seen Norse and later Scottish control, but from the end of the 13th century, the English achieved varying influence on the island. After 1399, it became part of England though the Lords of the Island initially styled themselves as Kings. This stopped in 1504 after which the title of Lord was used and after 1765, it was merged with the crown of Great Britain. The battle between Mortimer and King Henry IV also foreshadowed the War of the Roses, between Mortimer’s grand nephew, Richard of York, who inherited the Clarence claim, and King Henry VI.
165 – Charles Edward Stuart – His invasion of Britain during the War of Austrian Succession could have had a more serious impact had he received better support from England. With a legitimate claim to the English and the Scottish thrones, he had supporters in both England and Scotland. But when the final push came, though he raced through Scotland, England stayed aloof. The French attempted to provide support, but it wasn’t enough and the invasion ends up on the shelf of “What Ifs”.
166 – Nikolai Pávlovich, Emperor of Russia (1825-1855), King of Poland (1825-1830, 1831-1855), Grand Duke of Finland (1825-1855) – Emperor Nikolai’s battles with the Ottoman Empire accelerated in its fall, leading to the independence of Greece and autonomy for Wallachia and Moldavia.
167 – Stefan Dušan, King of Serbia (1331-1346), Emperor of Serbia (1346-1355) – Medieval Serbia at its peak, before it all collapsed – A proto state for Yugoslavia and Slavic unity in the Balkans. However, the incursions into Albania and Macedonia still leaves a bad mark in present day Albania.
168 – Alboin, King of the Lombards (560-572) – Lombards begin their conquest of Italy, leaving Pannonia. Though other Germanic tribes had ruled in Italy after the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, it was the Lombards that retained control over it the longest and had the most influence in the future of Italy.
169 – Theudelinda, Queen of the Lombards – Theudelinda’s connections allowed for a mostly stable transition in authority for the Lombards, enabling the long period of Lombard rule in Italy. She also played a vital role in the conversion of Lombards to Catholicism, especially given the position of Rome and the Roman Church in Italy.
170 – Clothaire, King of Neustria (584-613), King of the Franks (613-629) – The constant in-fighting of the Merovingians led to the decline of their power, while the nobility gained more power. Two of the nobles who sided with Clothaire in 613 against Brunhild were Pepin of Landen and Arnulf of Metz, whose descendants would eventually usurp the Merovingians.
171 – Grimoald, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia (643-657) – Grimoald’s attempt to install his own son as King was the first attempt in his family to seize complete power of the Franks. His sister’s descendants, Charles Martel, Pepin and Charlemagne, would eventually overthrow the Merovingians and take over the rule of the Franks and enlarge the Frankish Kingdom substantially.
172 – Gundobad, King of the Burgundians (473-516) – Though the Kingdom of Burgundians was perhaps the shortest of the Kingdoms of Germanic tribes that replaced the Roman Empire, their influence in the region and the retention of the Burgundian identity has been a long one.
173 – Gaiseric, King of the Vandals (428-477) – Events leading to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire – The defeat of Emperor Majorian at sea near Cartagena led to the fall of the last Roman Emperor in the West to exhibit any control over the realm and the conquest of Roman Africa had an impact on the food supplies of Rome. The Vandals were also the first non Roman nation to breakaway from the Empire as well.
174 – Robert de Normandie, Count of Maine (1063-1069), Duke of Normandy (1087-1106) – The beginning of Norman intervention in Maine. Within a century, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and England would all be ruled by King Henry II of England. When Henry VI married Marguerite d’Anjou, he let go of any claims over Maine. This was one of the causes for the increasing role of Richard of York in England, which later led to the War of the Roses.
175 – Isabelle, Queen Consort of England – Isabelle’s son, Edward III, claimed the crown of France in her name. French royal succession laws were unclear on whether women could inherit, but the claim was not considered and a prince from the next senior branch of House of Capet became King. There were other senior claimants in the female line, however. It was this claim that led Edward and his descendants pursue the crown of France during the Hundred Year’s War (1337-1453), with Edward’s great great grandson, Henry VI, briefly becoming King of France, albeit nominally since he was still an infant. But by 1453, France had reclaimed most of its conquered land, but the Kings of England would continue to claim France for centuries and the rivalry between the two Kingdoms would continue for a long long time.
176 – Danylo Romanovich, Prince of Halych (1238-1264), Prince of Volhynia (1215-1238), King of Galicia-Volhynia (1253-1264) – The introduction of Catholic faith among the Rus’. The Rus’ were earlier aligned to Orthodoxy due to their ties with Constantinople, but Danylo’s choice of western allies led to change in faith among some of the Rus’. Both Halych and Volhynia would see centuries of Catholic rule under Polish, Lithuanian and Habsburg rule, leading to more Catholics among the Rus’ and adding to the religious mix of present day Ukrainians.
177 – Kazimierz, King of Poland (1333-1370) – Reunification of Poland after two centuries of fragmentation and the conquest of Galicia-Volhynia, initially by Poland. Kazimierz’s wedding to Aldona, daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania would also be the initial connection between Poland and Lithuania that would last till 1795. Jogaila, who united Poland and Lithuania, would marry a granddaughter of Kazimierz to strengthen his claim for Poland, after his first wife’s death. Galicia-Volhynia was part of the union of Poland and Lithuania almost throughout, but is currently largely part of Ukraine and Belarus and was one of the main targets in the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.
178 – Maximilian von Bayern, Duke of Bavaria (1597-1651), Elector of Bavaria (1648-1651), Elector Palatine (1623-1648) – The annexation of Donauwörth and the formation of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were important precursors for the Thirty Years War which rocked Europe from 1618 to 1648. Spain, Denmark, Sweden and France were all drawn in to a war that was largely internal to the Holy Roman Empire. Bavaria gained territory and the privilege of becoming an elector in the process, though both Sweden and France devastated the region during their invasions.
179 – Sophia von Simmern, Electress Consort of Hanover – The beginning of the Electorate of Hanover and the transfer of power in Britain from the Stuarts to a dynasty from Germany.
180 – Alexios Strategopolous, the Byzantine general – The reconquest of Constantinople allowed Nicaea to claim supremacy over Epirus with which it had been constantly at war. Though the revival of Constantinople may have had a negative impact on Byzantine presence in Anatolia, it made for a more stable Byzantine Empire than different parts fighting each other.
181 – Muḥammad ʿAlī al-Mas’ud ibn Agha, Wāli of Egypt (1805-1848) – The separation of Egypt from Ottoman rule and the acceleration of the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
182 – Mithradates Eupator Dionysus, King of Pontus (120 BC – 63 BC) – When the Scythians attempted to conquer the Bosporan Kingdom of Crimea, they sought help from Pontus. Pontus got rid of the Scythians, but also annexed the Kingdom in the process. After Pompey defeated Mithradates, his son, Pharnaces, ruled in both Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom as a Roman client King. His son, Darius, ruled briefly in Pontus after Pharnaces, before the Romans intervened and eventually annexed it, but in Crimea, a daughter of Pharnaces, Dynamis, and her husband ruled. The Bosporan Kingdom was the longest lasting of the Roman client states, ending with the invasion by Goths in 370 AD. It is believed Aspurgus, who succeeded Dynamis, was her son or a close relative and all subsequent Kings were descended from Aspurgus, who also married a descendant of Roman general, Marcus Antonius. The Bosporan Kingdom maintained a long association with Greece, especially in trade, long before the Pontic annexation. The association deepened after Mithradates acquired the Kingdom and it continued with Rome and later Constantinople, which all led to a sustained Greek presence in Crimea and Southern Ukraine to the current day.
183 – Mengli Giray, Khan of Crimea (1467, 1469-1475, 1478-1515) – Mengli Giray’s alliance with the Ottomans led to a long presence for both the states in the Crimean peninsula that lasted till late 18th century, when Russia conquered it. This time period also saw the end of the last independent Greek presence in Crimea and the outright independence of the Rus’ people from Mongol hegemony. Though the Crimea Khanate claimed itself to be the continuation of the Golden Horde, the last remnant of the Mongol Empire effectively came to an end with the fall of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, in 1502 and it became easier for Moscow and later Russia to conquer all of its successor states over time.
184 – Abd al-Rahman ibn Muawiya, Emir of Córdoba (756-788) – Although the Umayyads had conquered the Iberian peninsula in 711, the local administration had become extremely fractured and disunited. Abd al-Rahman’s family had a primacy among the Muslims in Iberia because of their ancestry, which brought much needed stability at the top level. The Emirate, and later the Caliphate, provided stability till 1031, which gave the Muslims a base to build on in Iberia, something that may not have happened without Abd al-Rahman’s intervention.
186 – Alfonso, King of Asturias (866-910) – The expansion of Asturias south of the Cantabrian Mountains was a crucial part of the Reconquista. Although the division of Asturias after Alfonso’s death foreshadowed a long time of infighting among the Catholic states, it was these divisions empowered to expand for themselves that eventually overcame the Muslim states in the peninsula, with León expanding in the west and Castile, then only a County, expanding in the middle.
186 – Lajos, King of Hungary (1342-1382), King of Croatia (1342-1382), King of Poland (1370-1382) – The Balkan campaigns of the Hungarian King weakened both Serbia and Bulgaria enough for them to be easy pickings for the Ottomans. The division of the Kingdoms between his daughters also had a lasting legacy. Maria, who ruled in Hungary, married the Bohemian prince (and later Holy Roman Emperor) Sigismund from whom the Habsburgs later got control of Hungary. Jadwiga, who ruled in Poland, married the Lithuanian Duke, Jogaila, bringing together the two states and a long union of the two.
187 – Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1345-1377), Prince of Vitebsk (1320-1377) – The gradual progress of Lithuania into Rus’ territories and alliance with Poland. Algirdas added a large part of present day Ukraine to Lithuania during his reign adding onto his father’s addition of present day Belarus. Due to his association with Vitebsk, Algirdas also has close ties to the origins of Belarus.
188 – Christian, Duke Of Schleswig (1533-1559), Duke of Holstein (1533-1559), King of Denmark (1534-1559), King of Norway (1537-1559) – The adoption of Lutheran faith in Denmark.
189 – Frederik, King of Denmark (1648-1670), King of Norway (1648-1670), Duke of Schleswig (1648-1670), Duke of Holstein (1648-1670), Count of Oldenburg (1667-1670), Prince Bishop of Verden (1623-1629, 1635-1644), Prince Archbishop of Bremen (1635-1645), Prince Bishop of Halberstadt – The shaping of present day boundaries of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, including the end of Danish presence in the Scandinavian peninsula with the loss of Skåneland to Sweden.
190 – Sancho Garcés, King of Pamplona (999-1035), Count of Aragon (999-1035), Count of Sobrabe (1015-1035), Count of Ribagorza (1019-1035) – The beginning of Castile and Aragon as independent kingdoms after Sancho divided his kingdom amongst his sons. It was Castile and Aragon that eventually completed the conquest of the Iberian peninsula in 1512 to create Spain (Portugal was initially part of Castile, before breaking away and expanding southwards).
191 – Alfonso, King of León (1065-1072) , King of Galicia (1065-1072), King of León (1072-1109), King of Galicia (1072-1109), King of Castile (1072-1109), King of Toledo (1085-1109) – The conquest of Toledo was a substantial push back for the Reconquista of the Iberian peninsula. The period also saw a greater integration of Catholic Spain to rest of Catholic Europe, which had a stronger Frankish vibe to it and this integration was enhanced with the ascendance of Burgundian houses in the Iberian peninsula with Urraca’s son, Alfonso, in León, Castile and Galicia, and Teresa’s son, Afonso, in Portugal.
192 – Erispoë, King / Duke of Brittany (851-857) – The origins of Celtic Brittany from Gaulish Armorica and its independence from the Frankish Empire.
193 – Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne (953-965), Duke of Lotharingia (954-965) – The breakup of Lorraine into Upper and Lower Lorraine was a key part in the evolution of Low Countries and the Lorraine region in France.
194 – Cesare Borgia, Duke of Valentinois (1498-1507), Archbishop of Valencia (1492-1498) – Borgia’s consolidation in Central Italy under the Papacy helped in part in the reunification of Italy centuries later. Church corruption, in the form of nepotism, sale of office and indulgences, was nearing its peak as the Popes relied more and more on such practices for financing their expeditions and expenditures. This set the stage for the Protestant movements of early 16th century.
195 – Pope Paul III (1534-1549) – He initiated Counter Reformation to counter the rise of Lutheranism in Europe. By the time Alessandro Farnese became Pope, Sweden and Prussia (as part of Poland) had both become Lutheran states. England had broken away from Rome as well and Denmark soon did in 1536. He initiated reforms, but also faced stiff resistance from the clergy. However, the Pope himself was not immune from criticism as he had also indulged in favouritism and the House of Farnese would go on to rule Parma and Piacenza till 1731.
196 – Jean de Luxembourg, King of Bohemia (1310-1346), Count of Luxembourg (1313-1346) – Although the rise House of Luxembourg began with Jean’s father, like the Houses of Nassau or Thuringia or Holland before them, there was no guarantee in the continued rise of Luxembourg. Jean de Luxembourg’s ascendance to the Bohemian throne also stabilized the region, ensuring the continuity of Bohemia as a kingdom (and the later formation of Czech Republic) unlike other imperial core regions like Franconia and Saxony.
197 – Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria (1619-1637), Archduke of Inner Austria (1590-1637), Archduke of Further Austria (1619-1623), King of Bohemia (1617-1619), (1620-1637), King of Hungary & Croatia (1618-1637), Holy Roman Emperor (1618-1637) – Though the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 allowed for Lutherans and Catholics to co-exist within the Empire, other Protestant religions like the Calvinists and the Hussites were not allowed. For a while, it was a watchful coexistence, until Ferdinand chose to reimpose Catholicism in the Habsburg domains and later in the Empire, after his election as Emperor. The Thirty Years War followed which would go on to redefine religion and borders across Europe.
198 – Alfonso de Aragón, King of Aragon (1104-1134), King of Navarre (1104-1134) – The conquest of Zaragoza was an important milestone in Reconquista, the seven century war by Catholics to retake the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims.
199 – Jaime de Aragón, King of Aragon (1213-1276), King of Majorca (1231-1276), King of Valencia (1238-1276), Lord of Montpellier (1219-1276), Count of Roussillon (1242-1276), Count of Cerdanya (1242-1276) – The conquest of the Balearic Islands was an important stepping stone in Aragonese intervention in Italy, which saw the island of Sicily and later the southern half of Italy being ruled by Aragonese monarchs till 19th century. The capture of Valencia was an important milestone in Reconquista as well.
200 – András, King of Hungary (1290-1301), King of Croatia (1290-1301) – The last days of the House of Árpád that “founded” Hungary. Although András’ father was not considered as belonging to the House of Árpád due to a purported illegitimate birth, when the rest of the House had died out, all the illegitimacy vanished. However, his lack of male heir set the question of monarchy out in the open again, leading to a brief period of ambiguity before the next dynasty (Capet-Anjou) took over.
A View From My Disjointed Laptop 
A glimpse of European history in 500 Tweets « A View From My Disjointed Laptop said
[…] Update 2 – I have closed this post once the 100th thread. Subsequent threads are available here. […]
Glimpse of European history in Tweet threads – Part 3 « A View From My Disjointed Laptop said
[…] This is a continuation of my earlier compilation of tweet threads available here. […]